| Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania all contributed indigenous units to the German war effort. They were a mixed bunch, but the Latvians and Estonians provided the Waffen-SS with excellent divisions which fought well in defence of their homelands. The police units raised in the Baltic states were less commendable, being responsible for rounding up Jews for execution.
Soviet atrocities in the Baltic The Baltic states of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia warrant their own section because they were independent nations on the eve of World War II. These former provinces of Russia had been independent only since 1920. Unfortunately, the Nazi-Soviet pact of August 1939 left them to the mercy of the USSR, as it designated them to be in the Soviet sphere of influence. In June 1940, following the collapse of France, Stalin ordered his army into the Baltic states under the pretence that they had, in official Soviet language, "grossly violated their mutual assistance pact with the Soviet Union". In fact, the move was part of Stalin's aim to advance the Soviet frontier westwards to create a buffer zone to absorb any future German attack. The subsequent behaviour of the Soviets in the Baltic states - 34,250 Latvians, 60,000 Estonians and 75,000 Lithuanians either killed or deported - should have turned their populations into willing allies of the Germans. Indeed, during the early stages of Barbarossa, the Germans were welcomed as liberators. However, as with the other Eastern peoples, the Baltic states were subject to Nazi ideology, which meant "germanizing" the "racially suitable", German colonization, and deportation or extermination of "undesirables" (usually the latter). The head of Hitler's secretariat, Martin Bormann, put it succinctly: "There are no independent nations in the East, but only the Sovietized mass of Slavs, who must and will be mastered." The Germans were able to recruit sizeable numbers of volunteer units, though many of the recruits believed they were fighting to liberate their homelands from the Soviets and restore national sovereignty. In reality, they were just tools to further Nazi aims. Examining each Baltic state in turn, this section will show how Nazi ideology, as elsewhere in the Soviet Union, resulted in wasted opportunities that ultimately contributed towards the German defeat in the East.
Lithuania On 15 June 1940, the Soviets assumed control of Lithuania, including the capital Vilna, which had been part of Poland until October 1939. Seven weeks later, the country was officially annexed by the USSR. In response, underground groups were formed, including the extremist nationalist and German-sponsored Lietuviu Aktyvistu Frontas (Lithuanian Activist Front). On 14 June 1941, tens of thousands of Lithuanians were exiled to Siberia by the Soviets for being "politically or socially unreliable". Eight days later, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union and had occupied Lithuania by the middle of August.
Rising up against the Soviets The Soviets had exacted a bloody toll from the Baltic states, and the Lithuanians suffered as much as their northern neighbours, Latvia and Estonia. In the face of such brutal treatment, and with the German invasion providing an impetus for revolt, it is estimated that at least 125,000 Lithuanians rose up to fight the retreating Soviets during the time between the initial German crossing of the eastern frontier and the final evacuation of all Russian troops. At least 4000 Red Army troops are estimated to have been killed during this period and another 10,000 wounded. Numerous Lithuanian cities were also liberated even before the Germans arrived, a sign of the determination with which the Lithuanians were willing to fight for their homeland. On 23 June, the Lithuanian Activist Front led a revolt against the Soviet occupiers. Partisans took over the largest cities, Kaunas and Vilnius, set up a provisional government and declared the restoration of Lithuanian independence.
The Germans move in Most of the Lithuanian population welcomed the Germans, and many subsequently collaborated with them in the hope of restoring Lithuanian independence, a hope that was to be quickly quashed. The provisional government was abolished and Lithuania became part of the Reich Commissariat Ostland and its name was changed to Generalbezirk Litauen (General District of Lithuania). The Lithuanian national army was not reconstituted, though some of its former officers and soldiers were incorporated into the Lithuanian police battalions formed by the Germans. Shortly after the German occupation, a reorganization was carried out of all local Lithuanian units comprising policemen, ex-soldiers, ex-officers and nationalist elements. These disparate elements, which also included schoolboys and university students, had been attacking the retreating Soviet forces and had been harassing and murdering Lithuanian Jews (there existed a rich vein of Baltic and Russian anti-Semitism before the Germans arrived). That July, many of the units in Kovno and elsewhere were incorporated into a paramilitary organization, the Tauto Darbo Apsauga (National Labour Guard). In Vilna and other places, the corresponding military organization was named the Lietuvia Savisaugos Dalys (Lithuanian Self-Defence).
Anti-Jewish measures in Lithuania At the end of 1941, these formations were reorganized into battalions by the Germans, and were renamed Policiniai Batalionai (Police Battalions). By August 1942, 20 such battalions were in existence with a total strength of 8388 men, of whom 341 were officers and 1772 noncommissioned officers (NCOs). They were commanded by former officers and NCOs who had served in the army of independent Lithuania. But the occupiers had them firmly under control, with German liaison officers assigned to each battalion and all the units being directed by the district SS and police leader headquarters in Lithuania. Just as the NKVD had rounded up "enemies of the state", so the SS began to clear Lithuania of Jews and political opponents. The police battalions were involved in these actions, and also assisted the German Einsatzgruppen (SS Special Action Groups). The 1st and 2nd Battalions, for example, took a leading part in the mass murder of Jews in Lithuania, as well as in the adjacent territories of Poland and Belorussia.
Lithuanian self-defence units The first formal Wehrmacht unit composed of Lithuanians to be formed was known as the Lituanische Hunterschaften, which was later used as a foundation for a series of self-defence units known as Selbschutz Bataillonen (Self-Defence Battalions). These battalions were later brought under the control of the German organization of uniformed frontline police, the Ordnungspolizie, and thus the SS, and renamed as Schutzmannschaft Bataillonen (Security Battalions) or Schumas. The Schuma units were universally renamed and reformed into police battalions in May 1943. Nearly all battalion-sized units consisted of 500-600 men. They were primarily assigned to rear-area security duties, but as the Red Army neared Lithuania they also saw frontline service. These Lithuanian units numbered a total of 35 battalions during World War II, consisting of units numbered 1-15, 251-257, 263-265 and 301-310. These units were also posted to Poland, Belorussia, the other Baltic states and even to the southern Ukraine. The battalions numbered 263-265 and 301-310 were never fully trained and were disbanded before they could be employed in combat.
No match for the Red Army As the Red Army approached Lithuania, the Germans grouped 3-4 Lithuanian police battalions into regimental-sized units known as Lituanische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regimenter (Lithuanian Volunteer Infantry Regiments). Three such units were formed as the Soviets reached the border, and they were sent directly to the front in an attempt to hold back the Red Army advance in late 1944 and early 1945. Invariably lightly armed and poorly trained for frontline duties, the battalions fared badly against the Soviets. As they served as auxiliaries to the Ordnungspolizei, they often supported the Einsatzgruppen's mass murder operations. The Lithuanian units were often put under the control of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA - Reich Security Department) and the Higher SS and Police Leader (HSSPF) in Ostland. This resulted in them taking part in punishment operations against local civilians for partisan attacks, which usually meant murdering all humans and their livestock in a designated area.
Lithuanian SS recruits In addition to the above units, there were also five Lithuanian battalions formed during 1943 which were attached to German pioneer units and under the control of Army Group North. The commanding officers of these units were all Lithuanians. Their tasks were road and railway construction and the building of defensive works. Initially, the units were not armed, but as partisan activity increased they were given light weapons for protection. Many members of the Lithuanian construction units were later asked to join the Waffen-SS; 40 percent eventually did.
A Lithuanian legion In January 1943, the HSSPF in Lithuania, SS-Brigadeführer Wysocki, was ordered to raise a Lithuanian legion for the Waffen-SS, similar to those raised from the Latvians and Estonians. He failed miserably, with very few volunteers coming forward. As a result, Wysocki was replaced by SS-Brigadeführer Harm, although the results still did not improve. Thereafter, the Germans threatened to put all able-bodied Lithuanians into labour camps until a compromise was reached. The Lithuanians were holding out for an independent formation led by Lithuanian officers and not under the control of the SS. They also requested that the formation only be used internally within Lithuania, and not outside their national borders. The Germans, though, wanted the exact opposite. The wrangling continued until February 1944 when the Germans agreed to all Lithuanian requests. The new formation was known as the Lithuanian Territorial Corps (originally, Himmler had refused to accept Lithuanians on the grounds that they were politically unreliable and racially inferior; however, by early 1944, the military situation in the East forced him to lower SS racial requirements). On 16 February 1944, an appeal was made for volunteers, which yielded more than 19,000 men. The Germans wanted only 5000, and so, much to the Lithuanians' annoyance, plans were put in motion to use the excess volunteers as replacements for Wehrmacht units. This infuriated the Lithuanians, so to avoid further problems it was agreed to use the excess volunteers to form 13 police battalions and 1 replacement unit. The 14 units were formed in March 1944, and immediately began military training.
Lithuanian dissent However, on 22 March 1944, Feldmarschall Walther Model, commander of Army Group North, made a formal request for the formation of 15 Lithuanian units to be employed to guard Luftwaffe airfields. This move once again greatly upset the Lithuanian volunteers; and, to make matters worse, on 6 May, a general mobilization order was issued (in response to the approach of the Red Army). On 9 May, the Germans went back on their earlier promises of independence from German military control, and all 14 units were placed under Wehrmacht jurisdiction. This caused widespread dissent among the volunteers who refused the new German demands. Thus, all 14 units were formally disbanded in the face of a mutiny. Of the original 19,000 men, about 16,000 deserted while the other 3000 were drafted into Luftwaffe flak batteries.
The Fatherland Defence Force In June 1944, Operation Bagration, the Soviet offensive that smashed Army Group Centre, resulted in the Red Army entering Lithuania. In response, the Germans formed an emergency formation called the Fatherland Defence Force. This new formation consisted of small groups of retreating Lithuanian troops who were organized into two regiments under German command. It was employed in defensive positions near Papiles where, in early October 1944, it was engaged in heavy combat with Soviet forces. Crippling losses caused the formation to pull back and a general retreat ensued. The survivors of the formation, about 1000 men, later regrouped in East Prussia as a new unit known as the Lithuanian Engineer Battalion. This new formation consisted of eight companies, and was tasked with working on defensive emplacements along the Baltic coast. However, it was all but destroyed shortly after formation, and only a very few men managed to escape via the Baltic Sea.
The continuing struggle Other units raised by the Germans in Lithuania included an NSKK unit formed towards the end of the war. There were also 1000 young Lithuanian boys and girls drafted into the service of the Luftwaffe to assist with flak, signal, transport and searchlight duties in the last months of the war. In the final analysis, the Germans only trusted the Lithuanians to dig ditches, shoot Jews and communists, and fight partisans. The Germans were more than happy for Lithuanians to undertake these unpleasant tasks. Even when the war had turned against Germany in the East after mid-1943, the Germans were half-hearted and lukewarm in their efforts to raise Lithuanian units. As a postscript, after World War, II tens of thousands of Lithuanians continued to fight the Soviet occupation forces well into the 1950s. The last of the Lithuanian anti-Soviet partisan forces are thought to have been wiped out in 1956.
Estonia In contrast to Lithuania, Estonia was looked on more favourably by Himmler for a variety of reasons. First, Latvia and Estonia was the old territory of the Teutonic Knights, the German warrior monks who had battled the Slavs in the Middle Ages. Racially, as he said himself, "they could not be distinguished from Germans. The Estonians really belong to a few races that can, after the segregation of only a few elements, be merged with us without any harm to our people." He was also careful to stress, however, that "a nation of 900,000 Estonians cannot survive independently, and that as a racially related nation Estonia must join the Reich". The collapse of Poland, together with almost total political isolation, paralyzed the Estonian Government. On 24 September 1939, Moscow demanded that Estonia hand over its bases to the Red Army; the government accepted the ultimatum, signing the corresponding agreement on 28 September. This resulted in 25,000 Red Army soldiers entering Estonia on 18 October. On 14 June 1940, the German Army marched into Paris; and on 16 June, Moscow presented an ultimatum to Estonia that a new government be appointed and that the occupation of the whole country be permitted. On 17 June, Estonia accepted the ultimatum and the independence of the country ceased to exist. By the end of the month, there were 130,000 Soviet soldiers, NKVD personnel and so-called "specialists engaged in establishing the new administrative apparatus of Estonia" in the country.
Estonians in British service The occupation of their country caused great resentment among Estonians. As a result, an unknown number of men went to Finland to fight voluntarily against the Red Army. At sea, when Estonia was proclaimed a Soviet republic, the crews of 42 Estonian ships in foreign waters refused to return to the homeland. These ships were requisitioned by the British and were later used in the Atlantic convoys. Some 1000 Estonian seamen served in the British merchant marine, 200 of them as officers; and a further 200 Estonians served in the Royal Air Force (RAF), British Army and in the US Army. In June 1940, the 16,800 men of the Estonian Army became XXII Territorial Rifle Corps of the Red Army. Thousands of men escaped from the corps when it was sent to Russia at the beginning of Operation Barbarossa. Of those who remained, 4500 went over to the German side (the corps was destroyed in fighting in September 1941). During Barbarossa, the German Army received help from the Estonian "forest brothers" (partisans). Taking advantage of the disarray of the Red Army, the "forest brothers" liberated south Estonia almost on their own. Their strength was between 25,000 and 35,000 men, of whom 12,000 were well armed. In the liberated territories, a Home Guard was formed from the "forest brothers", which had more than 14,000 men by 1 August and 25,000 men by 1 September. The "forest brothers" and the Home Guard managed to kill 3000 Soviets and took over 25,000 prisoners.
The first German-raised units Immediately after the arrival of German troops, the formation of Estonian national units began. First, Ost battalions under different names were formed - Security, East, Defence and Police Battalions - in addition to single companies. Under German Army control, they were used to free up Wehrmacht formations for frontline duties by carrying out guard and anti-partisan duties. The police battalions were used to round up Jews, gypsies, the mentally ill and communists, who were systematically murdered. Initially, the Ost battalions mostly served in the rear of Army Group North. By March 1942, there were 16 Estonian battalions and companies with 10,000 men plus 1500 men in a depot battalion. In total, 54 Estonian battalions were formed, most of them being committed to frontline combat in 1942. With his regard for the Estonians as racial brothers, it was inevitable that Himmler would raise Estonian Waffen-SS units. The first group of volunteers was raised in July 1941; and in the following months the SS established a number of Schutzmannschaft Bataillonen, which were separate from the army battalions. The next step was the creation of an Estonian legion.
The Estonian Legion On 28 August 1942, the German powers announced the legal compilation of the Estonian SS legion within the Waffen-SS. SS-Oberführer Frans Augsberger was nominated the commander of the legion, and by the end of 1942 1280 men had volunteered and been sent to the training camp at Debica in Poland. The Estonian Legion had a staff company, three infantry battalions, a heavy mortar company and an anti-tank company. In March 1943, a partial mobilization was carried out in Estonia, during which 12,000 men were called into service. Of these, 5300 were sent to the legion, and the rest to other units of the German Army. On 23 March, the 1st Battalion was detached and became a motorized grenadier battalion in the Wiking Division. At the same time, the legion was designated the 1st Estonisches SS Freiwilligen Grenadier Regiment. During the summer, the regiment expanded into two regiments and became the 53rd Freiwilligen Brigade with 6069 men. It was renamed the 3rd Estonian SS Freiwilligen Brigade on 22 October 1943.
The Battle of Narva On 24 January 1944, it was decided to upgrade the Estonian brigade to a division, which was titled 20th Estnische SS-Freiwilligen Division. As the Red Army reached the Narva River at the beginning of February, the division was brought closer to Narva. In April, the battalion that had been attached to Wiking returned to join the division; and in May 1944 it was renamed the 20th SS Waffen Grenadier Division (Estnische Nr 1). At this time, the division numbered 10,000 men, which had increased to 15,000 by September. Estonians were also present in the Luftwaffe (1000, including 140 pilots) and the Kriegsmarine (300) at this time. In total, it is estimated that there were 100,000 Estonians in various units fighting for Germany in the autumn of 1944. The SS division fought in the six-month battle at Narva, which also involved many other foreign volunteer units of the Waffen-SS. The Estonians, being highly motivated and well trained and equipped, put up a spirited defence and inflicted heavy casualties on the Soviets. At this time, the division's order of battle consisted of the 45th Waffen Grenadier Regiment, 46th Waffen Grenadier Regiment, 47th Waffen Grenadier Regiment and the 20th Waffen Artillery Regiment. Space does not permit a full examination of the division's exploits, but a few examples will be sufficient to illustrate its fighting qualities. Between 14 and 16 February, one of its battalions (I/45 under Hastuf Harald Riipalu) defeated large Russian forces which had crossed Lake Lammijärv near Meerapalu, inflicting 2000 casualties. On 24 February, the battalion of Hastuf Rudolf Bruus (II/46) destroyed the bridgehead of Riigiküla, and the battalion of Ostubaf Ain-Ervin Meri (I/46) liquidated the bigger bridgehead of Vaasa-Siivertsi-Vepsaküla. By June, the Estonian division was still in the line at Narva, but no amount of fighting prowess could prevent the impending German defeat (in the Baltic the Germans had two fronts - six to seven armies each - against a weakened Army Group North of two armies). However, the division was still capable of winning local victories, such as stopping the Soviet attack on Auvere, and the division helped to cover the German retreat from Narva in September. The Estonian division was driven from its homeland and forced to retreat along with the rest of Germany's collapsing forces. It fell back to Silesia and then Czechoslovakia. In May 1945, the less fortunate members of the division were captured by the Soviets, most being shot.
Latvian volunteers Like Estonia, Latvia raised considerable numbers of men for service with the Germans. Before the war, the country had been ruled by Karlis Ulmanis' para-fascist Peasant Union, whose main opponent was the fascist Fire Cross Party, later renamed the Thunder Cross. The latter had its own paramilitary units called Greyshirts. The Thunder Cross extolled the virtues of Latvianness, the peasantry and the land, and it regarded the non-Baltic ethnic minorities in the country, especially the Jews, as a problem. When the Germans occupied the Baltic states in 1941, Thunder Cross members took an active part in assisting the Einsatzgruppen. Viktor Arajs, a former communist, was one such individual. When the Germans took over, he placed an advert in a Riga newspaper for men to assist in "cleansing the country of harmful elements". More than 100 men responded, and their first action was to assist the Germans to massacre imprisoned Jews in July 1941. This marked the beginning of their campaign of murder and rape. On 8 December 1941, they helped to shoot Jews from the Riga ghetto; and by 1942, the so-called Sonderkommando Arajs was conducting anti-partisan operations. The unit numbered 300 men at its height, and many later joined the Latvian Legion.
No Latvian independence Following standard procedure, the SS and army formed a number of police battalions for anti-partisan and anti-Jew duties, though those under army command also saw frontline combat. They were raised purely to serve Nazi interests rather than to restore Latvian sovereignty. Latvian independence was never on Berlin's agenda. Thus, when the Senior SS and Police commander in Ostland, SS-Obergruppenführer Jeckeln, said to Latvian officers, "in a great German empire the Latvian people will have their place in the sun", he received a stiff rebuke from the Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. When Latvian leader and former general Rudolf Bangerskis proposed raising a 100,000-strong Latvian army, the idea received a cool reception. The Germans proposed instead to form a Latvian volunteer legion under the command of the SS. Hitler initially agreed to this, but in their recruitment drive the Germans assured the volunteers they would be fighting for an independent Latvia. The whole idea was therefore quickly scrapped in early February 1943.
The Schuma Battalions In August 1941, the Latvian urban and country police were formed into units to police the rear areas of the German frontline and also to combat partisan attacks. Called Schuma Battalions, Himmler originally wanted to form them into a Waffen-SS division in late 1941. However, the heavy losses suffered by the German Army meant they were immediately committed as frontline troops. Untrained for such a role and lightly armed, they inevitably sustained heavy losses. Himmler eventually took control of the Schumas and used them to form the basis of a Latvian SS unit. Despite the initial problems with recruiting a Latvian legion, Himmler was determined to raise a Latvian unit. The job of recruiting was given to Rudolf Bangerskis, who was promoted to the rank of SS-Gruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS and inspector of the Latvian Legion. This proved difficult as he could not draw on the manpower in the police and Schuma units so had to resort to conscription. Males who had been born between 1919 and 1925 were eligible for call-up, but by April 1943 only 2478 of the intended 15,025 men had been enlisted. In September, the Latvian Legion became the 15th SS Waffen Grenadier Division comprising the 32nd, 33rd and 34th SS Freiwilligen Grenadier Regiments, the 15th SS Freiwilligen Artillery Regiment and support units. Recruitment was still incomplete when the division was posted to the Nevel area as part of the Sixteenth Army, Army Group Centre, in late 1943. On 18 November, the Latvians were engaged against the Soviets in the Pstoshka, Majevo and Novosokolniki areas.
Battles on the Panther Line In early February 1944, the division left behind two infantry regiments in Novosokolniki and moved northeast to Belebelka, 30km (19 miles) north of Staraya-Russa where it joined X Corps of the Sixteenth Army. It was engaged in defensive fighting until 15 February 1944 when it was forced to withdraw. The division fought a number of rearguard actions until it reached the "Panther Line" position on the Velikaya River, 40km (25 miles) from Ostrov, on 28 February (the line was a defensive belt constructed from Narva to Ostrov). Once there, it linked up with its sister division, the 19th SS Latvian Division. This had been formed on 7 January 1944 and consisted of the 42nd, 43rd and 44th Waffen Grenadier Regiments, 19th SS Artillery Regiment and support units. It was here that they dug in and prepared for the relentless Soviet advance. Both divisions fought bitterly in the following weeks, but by 19 July 1944, they had been pushed back to Latvia itself. Lack of supplies and the imminent occupation of Latvia by the Soviets prompted some desertions within both divisions, which weakened their strength considerably. Despite this, men still came forward to join the divisions as a result of the lowering of the conscription age to 18.
The Courland Pocket Both divisions were reformed at Konitz in west Prussia, but during their reorganization Riga fell to the Red Army in October 1944. The 19th SS Latvian Division was cut off in the Courland Pocket, where it fought until the end of the war. As the Germans fell back towards Konitz, the 15th SS Latvian Division was prematurely committed to battle. By early February 1945, what was left of it was engaged in combat at Jastrow and then at Flederborn. Between 14 and 24 February, it conducted a fighting withdrawal from Peterswalde back to Wusterbarth, though by this time it had been broken up into battle groups. The division had ceased to exist in an organizational sense, though the battle groups continued to fight. The majority of the division surrendered to the Red Army at Neuruppin in early May 1945.
The cost in lives In all, an estimated 250,000 Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians served in military units under German command in World War II. Around half of them were killed in action or executed by the Soviets after the war (those captured were executed as traitors, the reasoning being that the Baltic states had been annexed by the USSR and thus their citizens had become Soviet citizens). As in Russia, the police and paramilitary units ably assisted the Einsatzgruppen carry out their grisly work: nearly all the 250,000 Jews in the Baltic states were exterminated during the war. To this figure must be added the tens of thousands of civilians who were murdered by Germany's Baltic legions. |
